The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist

The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio stands out from all previous depictions of the scene in art history. It stops at a surprisingly specific moment; one in which John's head is not completely separated from his body. The emphasis on the explicit details of the act of his murder is often read as resulting from Caravaggio's personal experience of violence, but close examination can offer a deeper understanding and appreciation of the painting.

The Bible does not provide further details about the death of John the Baptist. The Gospel of Luke (3:19-20) simply states that Herod Antipas had John imprisoned and released for criticizing his adulterous relations with his brother's wife, Herodias. Both Mark (6:17-28) and Matthew (14:3-11) add that Herod feared the Baptist and was reluctant to kill him and that the beheading occurred in prison during a party. Often a source of inspiration for artists due to its more descriptive nature, even The Golden Legend also glosses over the details, briefly stating that '...the executioner is dispatched, John loses his head, his head is given the daughter and the daughter presents her to her adulterous mother.

Early traditions in Italian church imagery set the event within a larger narrative, for example in fresco cycles or predella depicting scenes from the life of John. These often present a kind of 'before and after' illustration of the event, initially showing the Baptist in prison about to be executed, and later the presentation of his head to Salome or his mother Herodias. Architectural details such as arches and crenellated walls often separate the murder scene from Herod's party. By excluding the act of beheading and the decapitated body, the viewer may be dissuaded from dwelling on these aspects. In this painting, Caravaggio deliberately directs his imagination towards them.

Caravaggio's Beheading of Saint John the Baptist probably began in the first half of 1608 and is his largest work by a considerable amount.

While the action dominates only half of the canvas, the physical aspect of the Baptist's murder dominates the whole. With John's head still partially attached, his body appears almost complete, reinforcing the totality of his martyrdom and developing the familiar symbol of his severed head. Having severed most of the Baptist's neck with the discarded sword, the executioner reaches into his belt for a knife to finish the job. With a handful of hair, he pulls the victim's head in preparation for severing it from the last of the creepy tendons. The blood that pours from John's neck onto the ground provides the ink for Caravaggio's only signature. When viewed in situ, the shed blood of the Baptist's martyrdom connects directly to the altar table below, a sign analogous to the sacrifice and covenant blood of Christ in the Eucharist. We know that Caravaggio was no stranger to a sword fight (although, as far as we know, he never attempted to remove a human head), but the grueling mechanics of killing a man would have been more familiar to the Knights of the Order of Saint John, in whose chapel is this altar box.

The subtle reworkings of traditional iconography in this painting command the viewer's attention. The usual cane cross has been replaced by the sword that was used to behead John, its crossed hilt barely hidden from view. The rope binding his wrists snakes into the foreground, mimicking the pennant often used to link the Baptist to Christ testifying 'Ecce Agnus Dei'. The bundle also alludes both to the religious images of the slaughtered lamb and to the traditional paintings of the animals in kitchens or butcher shops. The legs of his animal skin protrude from under the strip of cloth and reflect his own lifeless legs, emphasizing the slaughter that is taking place. John's iconic right index finger relaxes into a curve as the life drains from his body. His usual red cloak wraps around his right shoulder, across his back, and into the foreground to form a red stain, creating a visual counterpoint to the pool of blood. Caravaggio handles these significant symbols with a realistic simplicity that is powerfully evocative yet does not distract from the scene at hand.

A group of figures gathers around the body of the Baptist and all heads turn towards the action. On the left side, Salome leans over with a serving plate ready to receive her head. The golden tray alludes to the feast taking place simultaneously, but also acts as a substitute for a halo, a sign of John's impending sainthood. An elderly woman stands next to her, looking dismayed as she clutches her head in what may be an involuntary gesture. She also offers a stark contrast in age, beauty, and emotion with her younger companion, a device Caravaggio uses often. Beside him, the jailer points to the plaque, a grim desecration of John's right arm that baptized Christ and always pointed to Him and salvation. The keeper's finger draws our gaze to home plate and back to Bautista's head, thus returning the focus to the kill. Two men crane their necks from the jail window to the right to witness the execution, a morbid yet realistic observation of human behavior.

Caravaggio changes the Gospel accounts by setting the scene outside the prison. Some art historians have speculated that it may have been inspired by the imposing walls and rustic arches of the courtyard of the Grand Master's Palace in Valletta. The somber, unceremonious setting and brutality of the Baptist's execution are balanced by the sober color and monumental classicism of the figures posed and held in action. An earth-colored stone wall replaces John's wild house. The broken slats of a gate visible through the gloomy archway perhaps allude to trees, their crossed construction could be seen as a premonition of the future crucifix of Christ. The dominant brown hue is the result of the exposed ground, abbozzo, not a finished oil painting. Giovanni Pietro Bellori wrote that '[i]n this work Caravaggio used the full force of his brush, working with such intensity that he primed the canvas through halftones.'[2] Considering the prestige of the patron and the relative stability of the artist's career under the protection of the Knight in Malta, it seems more likely that the technique is an expression of confidence and style, with loose and less prescriptive brushwork being a predominant feature of his later works.

Light is important to the life of John the Baptist, within the work of Caravaggio and religious art in general. The Bible refers to John several times in reference to divine light; 'There was a man sent by God whose name was John. He came as a witness to bear witness to that light, so that through him all might believe. He himself was not the light; he came only as a witness to the light.' (John 1:6-8)[3]. 'He was a burning and shining lamp' (John 5:35).[4] Light illuminates, reveals, blesses and renews. Just as John's baptism of Christ officially initiated his ministry, the Order also required spiritual and moral purification prior to initiation. As a model of faith and obedience, the Baptist can be seen as a vessel that contains and radiates divine light, and a beacon on the way to God. Although his role is diminutive to that of Jesus, in death he too is an unquenchable flame. Her pale but luminous skin and serene face recall images of the flagellation and crucifixion of Christ. Chiaroscuro, a term with which Caravaggio's name is now synonymous, is the ideal conduit for communicating John's channeling of holy light to overcome the darkness of sin, damnation, and mortality that we all face.

Caravaggio has reinterpreted the typical attributes of the Baptist in a sophisticated and sensitive way, using realistic details to tell the story his way. The exclusion of halos and angels does not make the image any less holy. Rather, the very earthy naturalism of the painting has a powerful impact that focuses the viewer's experience on the Baptist's life, but, and I think more importantly, it shows us that John's world and ours are one and the same. . John's role as baptizer was to prepare the people for God, to be a light to guide and illuminate their path, so those who sought to extinguish John's light are the ones who are truly lifeless.

By departing from the thematic tradition, Caravaggio has contributed to it.